Industrial Revolution

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The Industrial Revolution

Blood on the forge
The Industrial Revolution
Labor Conditions
The Engine
Henry Ford Outline
Do We Need Cars?
The Four Stroke Engine
The Discovery of the X-ray
Car Motor, Car care
The Crown of Cups
Řersted's Experiment
Series vs. Ladder Wiring

His own muscles didn't sing
They grew weak and cried
for long slow movement
He couldn't stop them from twitching
It Wasn't the heat and work alone
The rhythm of machinery
played through his body

- anonymous

back to top

Before the sweep of the industrialization, people all over the western world lived close to the earth. Nearly everyone grew most of their own food in a family plot and work together as a large extended family to make a living. Most people lived in small towns and villages with very few exceptions there were almost no large cities. London had a population of one million but Paris had about 500,000 in 1750 and New York City only 16,000. This had been the pattern for centuries: change had occurred, of course, but the changes were small compared with what the future would bring.

The Industrial Revolution made Western people creatures of the city. No longer farmers, they became makers of goods, or providers of services such as banking, transport, etc. Millions of workers, children, women and men were drawn from the country into new factories run by the mew steam engines, into crowded cities where a few unskilled laborers could produce vastly more goods than the crowd craftsman of old. Machines, their sounds and smells, their inexhaustible rhythms became the new pulse of life.

THeir lives were nothing like what they were used to. Contact with the country was broken; the new industrial towns rarely had parks or squares. The people had to learn new habits: to work by the clock, to perform a boring routine, to find new occupations for their leisure if they had any. They had to learn to live tight, packed communities; they had to eat new kinds of food. Such transformations of society had never happened before, and never so quickly.
-by Mrs. DaRosa

back to top

The Industrial Revolution produced machines that created cloth much faster and cheaper than if made by hand. Many upper-class citizens built factories that easily and quickly manufactured clothing out of cotton, much more than was possible before through manual labor. The manufacturers easily found workers. These manufacturers were vulnerable against commerce from countries like France, Germany and especially America. TO protect themselves against this competition, manufacturers hired cheap workers that worked long hours, enabling them to sell their products cheaper. The manufacturers reminded their workers that if their factory went out of business, the workers would be out of work and now that clothes were so cheap, anyone could afford five sweaters when they could have only afforded one. The workers knew that if they went on strike, it would make little difference to the manufacturers, because they could easily find more workers.

From the Workers' Perspective:

When the factories took over, the individuals were forced out of their own private business by the severe competition. The machine owners were then able to hire the unemployed workers for minimal wages. Families needed money and had no other choice than to have both parents and their children to work outrageously long hours. Many children worked between 10 and 16 hours a day (depending on the season) at around one penny per hour. If they were late, they would be beaten and would not be paid. Children's day generally ran like this: they are shaken awake by their parents who had to ask to get the time; eat a hurried measly breakfast, if one at all; run to the mine, mill, or a factory that spins or weaves; work until noon where they get an hour break; work until around 8:30pm; get home where they might eat a pre-prepared dinner and then fall exhaustedly to sleep. If any of the workers protested against their long hours and low pay, they were quickly fired and replaced. With these miniscule wages, most families couldn't afford even one sweater, or any other product they themselves were manufacturing.

The government interfered by introducing regulations for the workers' benefit. These regulations were a precursor to the ones that we see today, forcing the manufacturers to take better care of their workers. The manufacturers argued saying that it was not the governments' place to make the new regulations, but the government won and to some extent still maintain control.

back to top

Into the gloom of a deep dark night,
With panting breath and startled scream,
Swift as a bird in sudden flight
Darts this creature of steel and steam.
Awful Dangers are lurking nigh,
Rocks and chasms are near the track,
But straight by the light of its great white eye
It speeds through the shadows, dense and black.
Terrible thoughts and fierce desires
Trouble it's mad heart many an hour,
Where burn and smolder the hidden fires,
Coupled ever with might and power.
It hates as the wild horse hates the rein,
The narrow track by veil and hill;
And shrieks with a cry of startled pain
And longs to follow its own wild will.

-unknown

back to top

I. Henry Ford - Early Biography

A. Childhood

1. Born in Dearborn Michigan

a. 8 siblings, Irish

b. Small town outside Detroit

2. Loved to tinker/build vs. farming

a. "clocks shuddered when Henry walked by"

b. Many experiments with steam

3 Mother died age 12

a. Restless

Young Adulthood

1. Walked to Detroit, 8 miles

a. 16 yrs. old got fathers' blessing

b. Westinghouse Engine co. - worked 11hr/day

c. 2nd job - Jewelry

d. covered room and board + $0.50/week

2. Returns to Dearborn

a. 1888 marries Clara Bryant

b. 1893 Edsal born
II. Early business ventures

A. Built first auto 1896

1. working Detroit Edison co. lots of free time

a. 24hr call

b. workshop behind house

c. 2 a.m. knocks down wall "Quadricycle" it works

B. Henry Ford co.

1.Built "999" racer

a broke speed records

b. raised prize money

2. Stockholders complain

a. Stockholders want passenger car

b. quits

C. Ford Motor co.

1. Ford quickly becomes rich

a. F uses $ to send "peace ships in WWI but they failed

b. F also uses $ to keep Edsal out of the war

c. F pays employees double the normal wage($5 vs $2.50 a day)

d. F never gave away money "makes one week"
III. Model T. "a car for the multitudes"

A. Cheap car

1. Almost everyone could afford "Tin Lizzy"

2. Handled bad roads well

3. Now able to see relatives easily

a. Changed the social status

B. Greedy inventors meet Henry

1 Inventors want his ideas

a. Henry had to climb out of his office widows to escape

C 1927: 15 millionth car rolled off assembly line

Ford co. threw huge celebration

Henry Ford was considerate for the most part. He cared about his country and his workers and did what he could, give money. However, Ford didn't give away money unless it was earned. Ford was against Jews and was quoted "If there is a problem in America, look to the Jews." For also never smoked or drank and was quoted "Smoking is a character flaw" and "Study the history of any criminal and you will find an inveterate smoker." Ford was definitely a respectable character.

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The world would be better off without cars. Cars hurt the environment and the creatures that live in it. Pollution and obesity are big problems in the world today and both are made worse through the use of automobiles. In addition, cars burn fossil fuels, a limited and valuable resource.

Cars pollute excessively by burning fossil fuels. The exhaust fumes that escape into the atmosphere cause the famed greenhouse effect which has devastating results. When it rains, the fumes that rest in the atmosphere as smog are flushed into the earth over a widespread area causing disease among many plants.

Fossil fuels are a limited source of fuel. Sooner than we think, that source of energy will expire. When that happens, many of our electrical power plants that run on that fuel will be of no use.

Cars are also a cause of obesity in the U.S. People in America usually drive everywhere they need to go, even a one-mile trip, or less. If no-one had cars, we would be forced to walk or ride our bikes to the bus-stop or other transportation. As of now, many Americans do not have enough exercise in their normal life-styles.

The world would be better off without cars. Public transportation is a much better substitute for millions of people living in a small space. This would force people to walk to the bus stop or light rail station. Buses burn less fuel per person than cars, and light rail trains run on pure electricity. Eliminating cars would be a big step towards a cleaner and healthier environment.

back to top

Almost all cars currently use a four-stoke combustion cycle, to convert gasoline into motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the "Otto cycle" in honor of Nicholas Otto, who invented it in 1876. The four strokes are illustrated below. They are: 1. Intake, 2. compression, 3. Combustion, and 4. Exhaust. The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. As the crank shaft revolves, it has the effect of "resisting the cannon." The piston starts at the to, the intake valve opens, then the piston moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder full of air and gasoline during the intake stroke. Only the tiniest drops of gasoline needs to be mixed with the air for this to work. Then the piston moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression makes the explosion more powerful. When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down. Once the piston hits the bottom of it's stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and exhaust leaves through the manifold to go out the tail pipe. No the engine is ready for it's next cycle.
-by Mrs. Darosa

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The Industrial Revolution saw many significant advances in science. One discovery that helped both the medical and the industrial fields was the X-ray, which was discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.

Wilhelm Roentgen was born on March 27, 1845 in the small German town Lennep. Roentgen acquired degrees in mechanical engineering and in physics. He was made professor of physics and director of the Physical Institute of the University of Wurburg.

Roentgen became interested in the works of Hillorf, Crookes, Hertz, and Lenard. He obtained a Lenard tube and repeated several experiments that Lenard had created. Roentgen became fascinated with the effects of cathode rays in free air. He abruptly stopped his other studies and focused entirely on cathode rays. He set up an experiment using a Crookes tube fitted with an anode and a cathode separated a few inches inside the tube. When he conducted the experiment, he noticed something unusual.

To see the experiment better, his lab was dark. He also had his tube covered with a light-proof cardboard sleeve and among other things, he had a paper plate coated with barium platinocyanide a few feet away. When he charged the cathode, the plate began to glow a fluorescent white. He was astonished, the cathode rays as he understood them couldn't make this happen because no rays could penetrate the cardboard. He hypothesized that this was a new kind of ray. He adopted the name X-ray and the name stuck.

At once he began further investigations, he passed different material through the rays and observed the effects. He found that some material cast only a faint shadow while others, in particular lead, did not allow any rays to pass through, casting a full shadow an the plate. While he was conducting his experiments, he was shocked to see that his own hand cast a peculiar shadow, his skin cast a faint shadow, while his bones cast a full one. He had his wife hold her hand on the plate for a full fifteen minutes which imprinted the image on the plate. This was the first X-ray.

Roentgen received an immense amount of awards, but he remained modest and took many trips to the country-side. A glassblower by the name of Muller took immediate action and created the first commercial X-ray which he sold to a local hospital. He then began a business that sold X-ray tubes to medical facilities. Muller was also granted a patent to the X-ray with a water-cooled anti cathode. Muller's company was bought out by the Dutch Philips company in 1927. The new company made X-rays for medical as well as industrial purposes. The industrial scanners were often used without much protection because it had not yet been determined that X-rays could impair or destroy living cells.

Some of the inventions created in the Industrial Revolution are not of any use today. The X-ray however still remains of great use and importance. Today, X-rays are being used for medical purposes, at airports to scan luggage, in factories to detect flaws in machine parts, and in many other ways.

back to top

1. Check the antifreeze level weekly. Fill with 50/50 solution of antifreeze and water.
2. Inspect belts and hoses monthly. Replace worn or frayed belts.
3. Check transmission fluid monthly. Add fluid if needed. DO NOT OVERFILL!!!
4. Check oil every other fill up. If it is low, ad oil.
6.heck brake fluid monthly. Fill to mark on reservoir. DO NOT OVERFILL!!!
7 Keep windshield washer fluid full.
8. Use extreme caution when handling a battery. Have it checked with every oil change.
9. Check power steering fluid level once per month. If level is down, add fluid.

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Apparatus: five 100ml beakers, five strips of copper and five of zinc, 1:10 solution of sulfuric acid, several different light bulbs.

We put the strips of copper in the beakers and filled them half-waywith acid. We let it sit for a couple of minutes, then we put the zinc strips in, all but one were connected to the copper stripswith alligator clips.

The zinc started to fiz. We connected the stray two wired through an LED light which lit up. A 6.3 volt lightbulb lit up also.

We also tried the same set-up, but we touched the strips to our tongues instead of putting them in acid. We had four people hold a copper and a zinc strip that werent connected to eachother on their tongues. The fifth person then put their two pieces of metel on their tongues. All five people felt a little zing on their tongue.

Electricity needs to move. When the four cups were connected, there was still an open circuit. When we connected the lightbulb, it completed the circuit which allowed the electricity to flow. The acid in the cups corroded the zinc which realigned its particles. This creates a current when copper in present. This is what makes a battery. All batteries are made of two different metels, in our case zinc and copper, and a corrosive liquid, we used sulfuric acid.

back to top

Apparatus: two 6 volt batteries, two bottles, three alligator clips, copper wire, compasses.

We set up the wire suspended between two bottles pointing north to south. We connected two batteries together. We also set a compass below the wire and held the other compass above. When we applied a current on the wire, the compasses changed their direction. The bottom one faced on direction while the top faced the other. When we switched the direction of the current, the direction of the compass changed also.

In it's passive stage, the needle points north. We aligned the coils so that the coils pointed north also. When we connected a current to the wire, the compass pointed to the hollow of the coil. When we switched the current, the needle pointed in the opposite direction.

back to top

Apparatus: 6 volt battery, alligator clips, lightbulgs.

We connected the lights and battery in one circuit (series wiring). We disconnected everything then connected the battery and one, lightbulb, then connected another lightbulb then another lightbulb (ladder wiring).

In the first set-up, the light got dimmer the farther along the circuit they were. In the second set-up, all the lightbulbs were bright.

In the series wiring, the electricity is being used through each bulb causing resistance whichmakes them dimmer. In the ladder wiring, each lightbulb in on its owncircuit which means that no lightbulb is reduced by resistance.

back to top

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	Industrial Revolution < Schoolwork < The Industrial Revolution Contents Blood on the forge The Industrial Revolution Labor Conditions The Engine Henry Ford Outline Do We Need Cars? The Four Stroke Engine The Discovery of the X-ray Car Motor, Car care The Crown of Cups Řersted's Experiment Series vs. Ladder Wiring Blood on the Forge His own muscles didn't sing They grew weak and cried for long slow movement He couldn't stop them from twitching It Wasn't the heat and work alone The rhythm of machinery played through his body - anonymous back to top The Industrial Revolution Before the sweep of the industrialization, people all over the western world lived close to the earth. Nearly everyone grew most of their own food in a family plot and work together as a large extended family to make a living. Most people lived in small towns and villages with very few exceptions there were almost no large cities. London had a population of one million but Paris had about 500,000 in 1750 and New York City only 16,000. This had been the pattern for centuries: change had occurred, of course, but the changes were small compared with what the future would bring. The Industrial Revolution made Western people creatures of the city. No longer farmers, they became makers of goods, or providers of services such as banking, transport, etc. Millions of workers, children, women and men were drawn from the country into new factories run by the mew steam engines, into crowded cities where a few unskilled laborers could produce vastly more goods than the crowd craftsman of old. Machines, their sounds and smells, their inexhaustible rhythms became the new pulse of life. THeir lives were nothing like what they were used to. Contact with the country was broken; the new industrial towns rarely had parks or squares. The people had to learn new habits: to work by the clock, to perform a boring routine, to find new occupations for their leisure if they had any. They had to learn to live tight, packed communities; they had to eat new kinds of food. Such transformations of society had never happened before, and never so quickly. -by Mrs. DaRosa back to top Labor Conditions The Industrial Revolution produced machines that created cloth much faster and cheaper than if made by hand. Many upper-class citizens built factories that easily and quickly manufactured clothing out of cotton, much more than was possible before through manual labor. The manufacturers easily found workers. These manufacturers were vulnerable against commerce from countries like France, Germany and especially America. TO protect themselves against this competition, manufacturers hired cheap workers that worked long hours, enabling them to sell their products cheaper. The manufacturers reminded their workers that if their factory went out of business, the workers would be out of work and now that clothes were so cheap, anyone could afford five sweaters when they could have only afforded one. The workers knew that if they went on strike, it would make little difference to the manufacturers, because they could easily find more workers. From the Workers' Perspective: When the factories took over, the individuals were forced out of their own private business by the severe competition. The machine owners were then able to hire the unemployed workers for minimal wages. Families needed money and had no other choice than to have both parents and their children to work outrageously long hours. Many children worked between 10 and 16 hours a day (depending on the season) at around one penny per hour. If they were late, they would be beaten and would not be paid. Children's day generally ran like this: they are shaken awake by their parents who had to ask to get the time; eat a hurried measly breakfast, if one at all; run to the mine, mill, or a factory that spins or weaves; work until noon where they get an hour break; work until around 8:30pm; get home where they might eat a pre-prepared dinner and then fall exhaustedly to sleep. If any of the workers protested against their long hours and low pay, they were quickly fired and replaced. With these miniscule wages, most families couldn't afford even one sweater, or any other product they themselves were manufacturing. The government interfered by introducing regulations for the workers' benefit. These regulations were a precursor to the ones that we see today, forcing the manufacturers to take better care of their workers. The manufacturers argued saying that it was not the governments' place to make the new regulations, but the government won and to some extent still maintain control. back to top The Engine Into the gloom of a deep dark night, With panting breath and startled scream, Swift as a bird in sudden flight Darts this creature of steel and steam. Awful Dangers are lurking nigh, Rocks and chasms are near the track, But straight by the light of its great white eye It speeds through the shadows, dense and black. Terrible thoughts and fierce desires Trouble it's mad heart many an hour, Where burn and smolder the hidden fires, Coupled ever with might and power. It hates as the wild horse hates the rein, The narrow track by veil and hill; And shrieks with a cry of startled pain And longs to follow its own wild will. -unknown back to top Henry Ford Outline I. Henry Ford - Early Biography A. Childhood 1. Born in Dearborn Michigan a. 8 siblings, Irish b. Small town outside Detroit 2. Loved to tinker/build vs. farming a. "clocks shuddered when Henry walked by" b. Many experiments with steam 3 Mother died age 12 a. Restless Young Adulthood 1. Walked to Detroit, 8 miles a. 16 yrs. old got fathers' blessing b. Westinghouse Engine co. - worked 11hr/day c. 2nd job - Jewelry d. covered room and board + $0.50/week 2. Returns to Dearborn a. 1888 marries Clara Bryant b. 1893 Edsal born II. Early business ventures A. Built first auto 1896 1. working Detroit Edison co. lots of free time a. 24hr call b. workshop behind house c. 2 a.m. knocks down wall "Quadricycle" it works B. Henry Ford co. 1.Built "999" racer a broke speed records b. raised prize money 2. Stockholders complain a. Stockholders want passenger car b. quits C. Ford Motor co. 1. Ford quickly becomes rich a. F uses $ to send "peace ships in WWI but they failed b. F also uses $ to keep Edsal out of the war c. F pays employees double the normal wage($5 vs $2.50 a day) d. F never gave away money "makes one week" III. Model T. "a car for the multitudes" A. Cheap car 1. Almost everyone could afford "Tin Lizzy" 2. Handled bad roads well 3. Now able to see relatives easily a. Changed the social status B. Greedy inventors meet Henry 1 Inventors want his ideas a. Henry had to climb out of his office widows to escape C 1927: 15 millionth car rolled off assembly line Ford co. threw huge celebration Henry Ford was considerate for the most part. He cared about his country and his workers and did what he could, give money. However, Ford didn't give away money unless it was earned. Ford was against Jews and was quoted "If there is a problem in America, look to the Jews." For also never smoked or drank and was quoted "Smoking is a character flaw" and "Study the history of any criminal and you will find an inveterate smoker." Ford was definitely a respectable character. back to top Do We Need Cars? The world would be better off without cars. Cars hurt the environment and the creatures that live in it. Pollution and obesity are big problems in the world today and both are made worse through the use of automobiles. In addition, cars burn fossil fuels, a limited and valuable resource. Cars pollute excessively by burning fossil fuels. The exhaust fumes that escape into the atmosphere cause the famed greenhouse effect which has devastating results. When it rains, the fumes that rest in the atmosphere as smog are flushed into the earth over a widespread area causing disease among many plants. Fossil fuels are a limited source of fuel. Sooner than we think, that source of energy will expire. When that happens, many of our electrical power plants that run on that fuel will be of no use. Cars are also a cause of obesity in the U.S. People in America usually drive everywhere they need to go, even a one-mile trip, or less. If no-one had cars, we would be forced to walk or ride our bikes to the bus-stop or other transportation. As of now, many Americans do not have enough exercise in their normal life-styles. The world would be better off without cars. Public transportation is a much better substitute for millions of people living in a small space. This would force people to walk to the bus stop or light rail station. Buses burn less fuel per person than cars, and light rail trains run on pure electricity. Eliminating cars would be a big step towards a cleaner and healthier environment. back to top The Four Stroke Engine Almost all cars currently use a four-stoke combustion cycle, to convert gasoline into motion. The four-stroke approach is also known as the "Otto cycle" in honor of Nicholas Otto, who invented it in 1876. The four strokes are illustrated below. They are: 1. Intake, 2. compression, 3. Combustion, and 4. Exhaust. The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. As the crank shaft revolves, it has the effect of "resisting the cannon." The piston starts at the to, the intake valve opens, then the piston moves down to let the engine take in a cylinder full of air and gasoline during the intake stroke. Only the tiniest drops of gasoline needs to be mixed with the air for this to work. Then the piston moves back up to compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression makes the explosion more powerful. When the piston reaches the top of its stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline charge in the cylinder explodes, driving the piston down. Once the piston hits the bottom of it's stroke, the exhaust valve opens, and exhaust leaves through the manifold to go out the tail pipe. No the engine is ready for it's next cycle. -by Mrs. Darosa back to top The Discovery of the X-ray The Industrial Revolution saw many significant advances in science. One discovery that helped both the medical and the industrial fields was the X-ray, which was discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Wilhelm Roentgen was born on March 27, 1845 in the small German town Lennep. Roentgen acquired degrees in mechanical engineering and in physics. He was made professor of physics and director of the Physical Institute of the University of Wurburg. Roentgen became interested in the works of Hillorf, Crookes, Hertz, and Lenard. He obtained a Lenard tube and repeated several experiments that Lenard had created. Roentgen became fascinated with the effects of cathode rays in free air. He abruptly stopped his other studies and focused entirely on cathode rays. He set up an experiment using a Crookes tube fitted with an anode and a cathode separated a few inches inside the tube. When he conducted the experiment, he noticed something unusual. To see the experiment better, his lab was dark. He also had his tube covered with a light-proof cardboard sleeve and among other things, he had a paper plate coated with barium platinocyanide a few feet away. When he charged the cathode, the plate began to glow a fluorescent white. He was astonished, the cathode rays as he understood them couldn't make this happen because no rays could penetrate the cardboard. He hypothesized that this was a new kind of ray. He adopted the name X-ray and the name stuck. At once he began further investigations, he passed different material through the rays and observed the effects. He found that some material cast only a faint shadow while others, in particular lead, did not allow any rays to pass through, casting a full shadow an the plate. While he was conducting his experiments, he was shocked to see that his own hand cast a peculiar shadow, his skin cast a faint shadow, while his bones cast a full one. He had his wife hold her hand on the plate for a full fifteen minutes which imprinted the image on the plate. This was the first X-ray. Roentgen received an immense amount of awards, but he remained modest and took many trips to the country-side. A glassblower by the name of Muller took immediate action and created the first commercial X-ray which he sold to a local hospital. He then began a business that sold X-ray tubes to medical facilities. Muller was also granted a patent to the X-ray with a water-cooled anti cathode. Muller's company was bought out by the Dutch Philips company in 1927. The new company made X-rays for medical as well as industrial purposes. The industrial scanners were often used without much protection because it had not yet been determined that X-rays could impair or destroy living cells. Some of the inventions created in the Industrial Revolution are not of any use today. The X-ray however still remains of great use and importance. Today, X-rays are being used for medical purposes, at airports to scan luggage, in factories to detect flaws in machine parts, and in many other ways. back to top Car Motor, Car Care 1. Check the antifreeze level weekly. Fill with 50/50 solution of antifreeze and water. 2. Inspect belts and hoses monthly. Replace worn or frayed belts. 3. Check transmission fluid monthly. Add fluid if needed. DO NOT OVERFILL!!! 4. Check oil every other fill up. If it is low, ad oil. 6.heck brake fluid monthly. Fill to mark on reservoir. DO NOT OVERFILL!!! 7 Keep windshield washer fluid full. 8. Use extreme caution when handling a battery. Have it checked with every oil change. 9. Check power steering fluid level once per month. If level is down, add fluid. back to top The Crown of Cups Apparatus: five 100ml beakers, five strips of copper and five of zinc, 1:10 solution of sulfuric acid, several different light bulbs. We put the strips of copper in the beakers and filled them half-waywith acid. We let it sit for a couple of minutes, then we put the zinc strips in, all but one were connected to the copper stripswith alligator clips. The zinc started to fiz. We connected the stray two wired through an LED light which lit up. A 6.3 volt lightbulb lit up also. We also tried the same set-up, but we touched the strips to our tongues instead of putting them in acid. We had four people hold a copper and a zinc strip that werent connected to eachother on their tongues. The fifth person then put their two pieces of metel on their tongues. All five people felt a little zing on their tongue. Electricity needs to move. When the four cups were connected, there was still an open circuit. When we connected the lightbulb, it completed the circuit which allowed the electricity to flow. The acid in the cups corroded the zinc which realigned its particles. This creates a current when copper in present. This is what makes a battery. All batteries are made of two different metels, in our case zinc and copper, and a corrosive liquid, we used sulfuric acid. back to top Řersted's Experiment Apparatus: two 6 volt batteries, two bottles, three alligator clips, copper wire, compasses. We set up the wire suspended between two bottles pointing north to south. We connected two batteries together. We also set a compass below the wire and held the other compass above. When we applied a current on the wire, the compasses changed their direction. The bottom one faced on direction while the top faced the other. When we switched the direction of the current, the direction of the compass changed also. In it's passive stage, the needle points north. We aligned the coils so that the coils pointed north also. When we connected a current to the wire, the compass pointed to the hollow of the coil. When we switched the current, the needle pointed in the opposite direction. back to top Series vs. Ladder Wiring Apparatus: 6 volt battery, alligator clips, lightbulgs. We connected the lights and battery in one circuit (series wiring). We disconnected everything then connected the battery and one, lightbulb, then connected another lightbulb then another lightbulb (ladder wiring). In the first set-up, the light got dimmer the farther along the circuit they were. In the second set-up, all the lightbulbs were bright. In the series wiring, the electricity is being used through each bulb causing resistance whichmakes them dimmer. In the ladder wiring, each lightbulb in on its owncircuit which means that no lightbulb is reduced by resistance. back to top
	Copyright © 2004 Daniel Parecki. All rights reserved.